The Spiritual Significance of Seeing Eyes: Cultural Perspectives & Psychological Insights

Last Updated: March 17, 2025

“The eye through which I see God is the same eye through which God sees me.”

— Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi, 13th-century Persian poet and Sufi mystic

The experience of noticing eyes or eye-like patterns in unexpected places has fascinated people across cultures throughout history. From ancient religious symbols to modern psychological interpretations, this phenomenon carries rich symbolic significance in spiritual and cultural traditions worldwide. This comprehensive exploration examines various interpretations of this experience, drawing on historical traditions, psychological research, and diverse cultural perspectives.

Key Points

The perception of eyes in unexpected places carries different meanings across cultural and spiritual traditions

Psychological research offers insights through phenomena like pareidolia and pattern recognition
Eyes have served as powerful symbols in religious iconography, literature, and art throughout history
Various spiritual traditions connect eye symbolism with awareness, insight, and transcendence

Personal interpretation plays a significant role in finding meaning in this experience

Table of Contents

Cultural Interpretations of Eye Symbolism

The symbolism of eyes varies significantly across different cultural and spiritual traditions. The following table presents major interpretations from diverse cultural perspectives:

Cultural Tradition	Symbolic Meaning of Eyes	Historical Context	Contemporary Interpretation
Ancient Egyptian	The Eye of Horus (wadjet) symbolized protection, royal power, and good health	Used as a protective amulet and religious symbol from c. 3100 BCE	Contemporary interpretations often connect this symbol with intuition and clarity of vision
Buddhist	The “Eye of Wisdom” represents enlightened perception beyond ordinary sight	Depicted on stupas (Buddhist monuments) as a symbol of Buddha’s all-encompassing vision	Associated with mindfulness and seeing things as they truly are
Hindu	The third eye of Lord Shiva represents spiritual insight, wisdom, and the destruction of ignorance	Mentioned in ancient texts including the Upanishads (c. 800-200 BCE)	Connected with the activation of the sixth chakra (ajna) and higher consciousness
Judeo-Christian	The “all-seeing eye” represents divine watchfulness and God’s omniscience	Biblical references include Psalm 33:18 and Proverbs 15:3	Interpreted as both comforting divine presence and a reminder of moral accountability
Indigenous American	Eyes often connected to ancestor spirits and spirit guides	Varied among different tribes and nations with specific regional interpretations	Frequently associated with guardian spirits who watch over and guide individuals
Celtic	Eyes associated with windows between worlds and spiritual sight	Connected to seers and prophets in Celtic mythology	Often linked to insight, divination, and connection with the otherworld
Greek	The “evil eye” (mati) tradition reflects belief in the power of envious gazes	Referenced in classical texts, including works by Hesiod (c. 700 BCE)	Protection against the evil eye remains an important practice in modern Greek culture
Islamic	The “eye of the heart” (ayn al-qalb) represents spiritual perception	Concept developed in Sufi mystical traditions	Associated with the inner faculty that perceives divine reality

According to religious studies scholar Dr. Jeffrey Kripal, “Eye symbolism transcends specific cultural boundaries, appearing across diverse traditions as a representation of both divine perception and human spiritual potential” (Kripal, Comparing Religions, 2014).

These various cultural interpretations suggest that eye symbolism connects to fundamental human experiences of being seen, seeing others, and developing deeper perception—themes that recur across diverse traditions despite their unique expressions.

Psychological Perspectives

Pattern Recognition and Pareidolia

From a psychological standpoint, the experience of seeing eyes in random patterns can be partially explained through the concept of pareidolia—a psychological phenomenon where the mind perceives familiar patterns (like faces or eyes) in ambiguous stimuli.

Cognitive neuroscientist Dr. Kang Lee explains: “Humans have evolved specialized neural mechanisms for face and eye detection that activate even when presented with minimal visual information resembling facial features. This heightened sensitivity helped our ancestors quickly identify potential threats or social opportunities” (Lee, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 2018).

This neurological predisposition doesn’t diminish potential spiritual meanings but offers complementary insight into why humans across cultures might be particularly attuned to eye-like patterns in their environment. Recent functional MRI studies have shown that the fusiform face area in the brain activates not only when viewing actual faces but also when viewing objects that merely suggest facial features.

Jungian Perspective: Eyes as Archetypal Symbols

In Jungian psychology, eyes represent an archetypal symbol that emerges from what Carl Jung termed the “collective unconscious”—a layer of the unconscious mind shared among all humans.

Jungian analyst Dr. Marie-Louise von Franz noted: “Eye symbols often emerge during periods of psychological transformation, representing a shift in consciousness or awareness. They can symbolize new insight or an awakening of intuitive faculties previously dormant in the individual” (von Franz, Man and His Symbols, 1964).

From this perspective, noticing eyes during significant life transitions might reflect psychological processes of integration and expanded awareness occurring at an unconscious level.

Attentional Factors and the Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon

The tendency to suddenly notice eyes everywhere might also relate to the frequency illusion, commonly known as the Baader-Meinhof phenomenon. This cognitive bias occurs when something recently brought to one’s attention suddenly seems to appear with improbable frequency.

Cognitive psychologist Dr. David Lewis explains: “Once something captures our attention, the reticular activating system in our brain begins filtering our perceptual field to highlight similar patterns, making us more likely to notice them where we might previously have overlooked them” (Lewis, The Brain Sell, 2013).

This psychological mechanism helps explain why someone might begin noticing eye patterns more frequently after having a significant experience involving eyes or eye symbolism, whether through a dream, spiritual practice, or meaningful encounter.

Historical Context and Cultural Symbolism

Ancient Civilizations and Eye Symbolism

The symbolic significance of eyes extends back to earliest recorded history. Archaeological evidence reveals eye symbols in some of humanity’s oldest civilizations:

Mesopotamia: The Eye idols of Tell Brak (dating to approximately 3500-3300 BCE) represent some of the earliest known eye symbolism, suggesting divine watchfulness or spiritual presence

Egypt: The Eye of Horus became a central protective symbol in ancient Egyptian culture, appearing in tombs, temples, and jewelry
Indus Valley: Eye imagery appears on seals and artifacts dating back to 2500 BCE

Archaeologist Dr. Elizabeth Richards notes: “The prevalence of eye symbolism across ancient civilizations that had limited contact suggests a cross-cultural recognition of eyes as powerful symbols, potentially reflecting universal human experiences related to perception, consciousness, and spirituality” (Richards, Sacred Symbols in Ancient Cultures, 2013).

Eye Symbolism in Art Through the Ages

Throughout art history, eyes have carried profound symbolic weight, often representing:

Divine presence: In Byzantine Christian icons, the “all-seeing eye” represented God’s omniscience
Inner states: Renaissance portraits often emphasized eyes as windows to character and soul

Consciousness: Surrealist artists like Salvador Dalí used eye imagery to explore themes of perception and reality
Surveillance: Contemporary artists frequently employ eye symbolism to comment on modern surveillance culture

Art historian Dr. James Elkins observes: “The eye has remained one of the most persistent and versatile symbols in visual art precisely because it functions simultaneously as both the instrument of seeing and a symbol of the act of seeing itself—creating a self-referential loop that artists have explored across epochs and cultures” (Elkins, The Object Stares Back, 2010).

Literary Traditions and Eye Imagery

Eyes feature prominently in world literature, often symbolizing:

Insight: In Shakespeare’s King Lear, physical blindness paradoxically leads to deeper insight
Witness: In T.J. Eckleburg’s billboard eyes in Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, representing moral judgment in an amoral era

Transformation: In Ralph Ellison’s Invisible Man, where vision and blindness serve as central metaphors for recognition and identity

Literary scholar Dr. Maya Johnson writes: “Eyes in literature often function as thresholds between internal and external reality, between perception and truth, making them particularly powerful symbols for exploring themes of enlightenment, deception, and revelation” (Johnson, Symbols of Perception in World Literature, 2017).

Eye Symbolism in Spiritual Traditions

The Third Eye Concept Across Traditions

The concept of a “third eye”—a spiritual or energetic center associated with intuition and higher perception—appears in numerous traditions:

Hindu traditions: The ajna (sixth) chakra located between the eyebrows represents intuitive wisdom and is often depicted as an eye
Buddhist practice: The urna, a spiral or dot on Buddha’s forehead, symbolizes spiritual vision
Taoist inner alchemy: Practices focus on opening the “celestial eye” to perceive subtle energies

Modern esoteric schools: Various traditions incorporate practices aimed at “awakening” the third eye

According to scholar of comparative religion Dr. Thomas McEvilley: “The third eye concept represents one of humanity’s most persistent symbolic understandings of spiritual perception—a recognition that there exists a mode of ‘seeing’ that transcends ordinary physical vision” (McEvilley, The Shape of Ancient Thought, 2012).

Mystical Experiences Involving Eyes

Accounts of mystical experiences across traditions often involve distinctive visual phenomena related to eyes:

Sufi mystics: Describe experiences of divine “witnessing” where the boundaries between seer and seen dissolve
Christian mysticism: Visionaries like Hildegard of Bingen reported seeing divine light resembling radiant eyes
Shamanic traditions: Practitioners report visions of eyes during altered states of consciousness, often interpreted as spirit beings or ancestors

Religious studies professor Dr. Mircea Eliade notes: “The recurrence of eye imagery in mystical experiences suggests they may represent a universal symbol for the intersection between ordinary and non-ordinary states of consciousness” (Eliade, Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy, 1964).

Eye Symbolism in Meditation Practices

Various meditation traditions incorporate techniques that involve the eyes:

Trataka: A yogic practice involving steady gazing at a single point, often a candle flame

Kasina practice: In Buddhist meditation, concentration on visual objects including colored disks
Visualization practices: Many traditions involve mentally generating images of divine eyes or faces

Meditation researcher Dr. Richard Davidson explains: “Meditation practices involving eye focus or visualization appear to activate specific neural networks associated with attention and visual processing, potentially creating lasting changes in perceptual awareness” (Davidson, Altered Traits, 2017).

Eyes in Dreams and Meditation

Dream Symbolism of Eyes

Eyes appearing in dreams have been interpreted variously across different psychological frameworks:

Freudian perspective: May represent surveillance, guilt, or super-ego functions
Jungian analysis: Often symbolize expanded awareness, integration of unconscious material, or the Self archetype

Contemporary dream work: Frequently interpreted as indicators of how the dreamer perceives themselves and others

Dream researcher Dr. Kelly Bulkeley observes: “Eyes in dreams often reflect the dreamer’s relationship with aspects of themselves they are becoming more conscious of, particularly qualities or potentials previously unrecognized” (Bulkeley, Big Dreams: The Science of Dreaming and the Origins of Religion, 2016).

The context and emotional tone of eye imagery in dreams significantly influence its potential meaning—bright, clear eyes may suggest insight or revelation, while threatening or damaged eyes might indicate fears around being seen or judged.

Eye Phenomena in Meditation

Many meditators report distinctive experiences involving eye imagery during practice:

Phosphenes: Geometric light patterns that may include eye-like shapes, often appearing with eyes closed during meditation
Inner visions: Spontaneous imagery including eyes may arise during deep states of concentration

Third eye sensations: Physical sensations at the forehead or between the eyebrows, sometimes accompanied by visual phenomena

Neuroscientist and meditation researcher Dr. Zoran Josipovic explains: “Visual phenomena during meditation may result from alterations in default mode network activity and changes in visual cortex excitability, creating experiences that the practitioner may interpret through their cultural and spiritual framework” (Josipovic, Neural Correlates of Consciousness, 2019).

Distinguishing Psychological and Spiritual Interpretations

When interpreting eye-related experiences in dreams or meditation, it’s valuable to consider multiple perspectives:

Neurological factors: Brain activity during altered states can produce distinctive visual phenomena
Psychological significance: Personal associations and unconscious material may emerge through eye symbolism
Spiritual frameworks: Various traditions offer interpretive systems for understanding such experiences

Transpersonal psychologist Dr. Jorge Ferrer advocates for an integrative approach: “Rather than privileging either neurological reductionism or uncritical spiritual literalism, we might understand such experiences as participatory events that emerge through the interaction of consciousness, culture, and potential transcendent dimensions” (Ferrer, Revisioning Transpersonal Theory, 2011).

Physical and Symbolic Dimensions

Eyes as Organs of Perception

Understanding the physical eye enriches appreciation of its symbolic dimensions. The human eye:

Contains approximately 107 million light-sensitive cells

Can distinguish approximately 10 million colors
Processes visual information before it reaches the brain
Continuously makes micro-movements even when seemingly fixed on a point

Ophthalmologist Dr. Andrew Iwach notes: “The incredible sophistication of the human eye as a sensory organ provides a scientific basis for why eyes have captured human imagination as symbols of perception and awareness” (Iwach, Understanding Vision, 2015).

Cultural Beliefs About Physical Eye Conditions

Across cultures, physical eye conditions have often been interpreted symbolically:

Eye Condition	Traditional Interpretation	Modern Perspective
Myopia (nearsightedness)	In some traditions, associated with excessive focus on immediate concerns or failure to see the “bigger picture” in life	Primarily understood as a refractive error with genetic and environmental factors
Heterochromia (different colored eyes)	Often considered a mark of special spiritual gifts or abilities in folklore	Recognized as a genetic trait that may occasionally indicate underlying conditions
Cataracts	Traditionally associated with accumulated negative experiences “clouding” perception	Understood as protein changes in the lens, primarily age-related
Colorblindness	In some shamanic traditions, considered a sign of ability to see into spiritual realms	Recognized as a genetic variation affecting photoreceptor cells

Medical anthropologist Dr. Emily Martin observes: “Cultural interpretations of eye conditions reflect how central vision is to human experience—physical changes in sight often become metaphors for changes in understanding or perspective” (Martin, The Cultural Meanings of Health and Illness, 2012).

Connections Between Physical and Spiritual Vision

Many traditions establish connections between physical eye health and spiritual perception:

Traditional Chinese Medicine: Associates eye health with liver function and balanced emotions
Ayurvedic medicine: Connects eyes to fire element (tejas) and transformation of consciousness

Native American practices: Some traditions use specific plants to cleanse eyes for both physical and spiritual vision

Integrative physician Dr. Rachel Carlton notes: “While modern medicine appropriately addresses the physical aspects of vision, many traditional healing systems recognized interconnections between physical eye health, emotional states, and capacities for insight or understanding” (Carlton, Integrative Approaches to Vision, 2018).

These diverse perspectives highlight how physical and symbolic understandings of eyes have remained intertwined throughout human history, informing both medical treatments and spiritual practices across cultures.

Personal Narratives and Interpretations

The experience of perceiving eyes in unexpected places is deeply personal, with meaning often emerging through individual interpretation within cultural and psychological contexts. This section presents various perspectives without claiming definitive explanations.

Common Experience Patterns

Research into personal accounts of seeing eyes reveals several common patterns:

Transitional periods: Many report increased awareness of eye-like patterns during major life transitions

Following loss: Some describe noticing eyes after the death of a loved one
During spiritual practice: Practitioners of various meditation traditions frequently report eye-related phenomena
In nature: Many describe finding eye patterns in natural settings like tree bark, stone formations, or cloud patterns

Anthropologist Dr. Susan Greenwood, who studies contemporary spiritual experiences, notes: “The interpretation of seeing eyes often reflects the individual’s cultural background and belief system, yet the experience itself appears across diverse populations, suggesting it may connect to fundamental aspects of human perception and meaning-making” (Greenwood, The Anthropology of Magic, 2009).

Finding Personal Meaning

When encountering eye imagery in unexpected contexts, many find these approaches helpful for personal interpretation:

Journal reflection: Recording the context, emotional response, and any insights that arise

Meditative inquiry: Bringing curious attention to the experience without immediate interpretation
Creative expression: Exploring the experience through art, writing, or other creative forms
Dialogue: Discussing the experience with trusted others who respect one’s interpretive framework

Psychologist Dr. Mary Watkins suggests: “Rather than reducing such experiences to either literal spiritual messages or mere psychological projections, we might approach them as invitations to dialogue with aspects of consciousness that communicate through symbolic language” (Watkins, Invisible Guests: The Development of Imaginal Dialogues, 2000).

Diverse Interpretive Frameworks

People interpret seeing eyes through various frameworks, including:

Spiritual guidance: As messages or reminders from divine or spiritual sources

Psychological insight: As projections of unconscious material becoming conscious
Pattern recognition: As natural cognitive processes highlighting meaningful patterns
Synchronicity: As meaningful coincidences revealing deeper connections

Religious studies scholar Dr. Jeffrey Kripal observes: “The interpretation one gives to extraordinary perceptions like seeing eyes everywhere often says as much about the interpreter’s worldview as about the experience itself. The most fruitful approach may be one that remains open to multiple levels of meaning” (Kripal, Authors of the Impossible, 2010).

Scientific Understanding of Vision and Perception

Neuroscience of Visual Processing

Current neuroscience offers insights into why humans might be particularly attuned to seeing eyes:

Specialized neural circuits: The human brain contains dedicated neural networks for face and eye detection

Fusiform face area: A region in the temporal lobe specifically activated by faces and face-like patterns
Low threshold detection: These neural systems activate even with minimal information suggesting eyes or faces
Evolutionary advantages: Quick detection of eyes and faces offered survival advantages for early humans

Neuroscientist Dr. Carl Schoonover explains: “From a neurobiological perspective, our heightened sensitivity to eye-like patterns reflects the evolutionary premium placed on social cognition—the ability to quickly identify and interpret the attentional states of others provided significant advantages” (Schoonover, Portraits of the Mind, 2010).

Pareidolia and Pattern Recognition

The tendency to see faces and eyes in inanimate objects or random patterns has been extensively studied:

Facial pareidolia: The specific tendency to perceive face-like patterns, including eyes

Signal detection: The brain’s balance between false positives (seeing patterns that aren’t there) and false negatives (missing patterns that are)
Cognitive biases: Various attentional and perceptual biases that influence pattern recognition

Cognitive scientist Dr. Kang Lee notes: “Pareidolia reflects an adaptive cognitive process—the brain is predisposed to detect patterns meaningful for survival and social interaction, sometimes activating these recognition systems even with ambiguous stimuli” (Lee, Face Processing: Systems, Disorders and Cultural Differences, 2017).

Altered States and Visual Phenomena

Research on altered states of consciousness provides additional context for understanding eye-related visual experiences:

Entoptic phenomena: Visual effects generated within the eye or visual system rather than external stimuli
Hypnagogic imagery: Visual experiences occurring at the boundary between wakefulness and sleep

Meditation-induced states: Changes in visual processing during deep meditation
DMT and other psychedelics: Research shows these substances often produce visions involving eyes and faces

Neuropsychopharmacologist Dr. Robin Carhart-Harris observes: “Visual phenomena involving geometric patterns, faces, and eyes are remarkably consistent across different altered states, suggesting they may relate to fundamental properties of the visual cortex when normal constraints on perception are relaxed” (Carhart-Harris, The Entropic Brain, 2014).

Scientific perspectives offer complementary rather than contradictory understandings to spiritual interpretations—explaining mechanisms through which perception occurs while leaving open questions of meaning and significance to individual and cultural interpretation.

Integrating Different Perspectives

Bridging Scientific and Spiritual Understandings

Rather than viewing scientific and spiritual perspectives as opposing, many contemporary thinkers suggest integrative approaches:

Complementary explanation: Science may explain how perception occurs, while spiritual frameworks address questions of meaning

Multiple levels of analysis: Physical, psychological, and spiritual dimensions may all offer valid insights
Participatory epistemology: Recognizing how our interpretive frameworks help shape our experiences

Philosopher Dr. Jorge Ferrer suggests: “We might understand experiences like seeing eyes everywhere not as either ‘merely psychological’ or ‘objectively spiritual,’ but as participatory events emerging through the interaction of consciousness, culture, and perhaps transcendent dimensions of reality” (Ferrer, Participation and the Mystery, 2017).

Cultural Context and Individual Experience

The meaning of seeing eyes emerges through interaction between broader cultural frameworks and personal experience:

Cultural inheritance: Available interpretive frameworks shape how we understand our experiences
Individual variation: Personal history, psychology, and spiritual orientation influence interpretation

Communal validation: Shared understanding within communities can affirm and shape meaning

Anthropologist Dr. Tanya Luhrmann observes: “Spiritual experiences are shaped both by cultural expectations and individual psychology, creating a complex interplay between shared frameworks and personal interpretation” (Luhrmann, When God Talks Back, 2012).

Contemplative Approaches to Understanding

Many contemplative traditions offer practices for exploring the significance of symbolic experiences:

Present-moment awareness: Attending to experiences without immediate interpretation
Open inquiry: Approaching experiences with curiosity rather than fixed conclusions
Embracing ambiguity: Allowing multiple layers of meaning to coexist

Meditation teacher Jack Kornfield writes: “Wisdom sees the impermanent, conditioned nature of all phenomena, allowing us to hold our interpretations lightly while still honoring their potential significance in our lives” (Kornfield, A Path with Heart, 2002).

Frequently Asked Questions

Is seeing eyes everywhere a sign of mental illness?

While pareidolia (seeing faces or eyes in random patterns) is a normal cognitive process, persistent disturbing visions, especially if accompanied by paranoia or distress, could indicate a need for mental health support. However, in most cases, occasionally noticing eye-like patterns reflects normal pattern recognition processes rather than psychopathology.

Psychiatrist Dr. Isabel Martinez explains: “Context and emotional response are key differentiators—finding meaning in occasionally noticing eye patterns differs significantly from experiencing intrusive, distressing visions accompanied by paranoid ideation” (Martinez, Differential Diagnosis in Clinical Practice, 2019).

What does it mean spiritually when I keep seeing eyes?

Spiritual interpretations vary widely across traditions. Common interpretations include:

Increased awareness or consciousness
Divine or spiritual presence

Ancestor or guardian spirit connection
Awakening intuitive abilities
Reminder of being witnessed or guided

The most meaningful interpretation will depend on your personal spiritual framework, the specific context of your experiences, and what resonates deeply with your intuition.

How can I tell if the eyes I’m seeing have spiritual significance?

Many spiritual traditions suggest considering:

Emotional quality: Does the experience evoke a sense of meaning, wonder, or recognition?

Contextual factors: Does it occur during significant life events or contemplative states?
Intuitive resonance: Does a particular interpretation feel genuinely meaningful rather than merely intellectually satisfying?
Integration: Does the experience connect coherently with other aspects of your spiritual journey?

Spiritual director Sarah Robinson suggests: “Rather than seeking external validation, many find it valuable to sit with such experiences contemplatively, noticing what emerges when the experience is approached with openness and self-awareness” (Robinson, Spiritual Companioning, 2016).

Are there practices to enhance eye-related spiritual experiences?

Various traditions offer practices that may increase awareness of subtle perception:

Trataka meditation: Focused gazing practices from yoga traditions

Third eye meditation: Concentrating awareness at the point between the eyebrows
Dream incubation: Setting intention to receive guidance through dream imagery
Nature connection: Practices involving open, receptive awareness in natural settings

However, many spiritual teachers caution against pursuing experiences for their own sake, suggesting instead that meaningful insights often emerge naturally through consistent contemplative practice.

Conclusion: Finding Personal Meaning

The experience of seeing eyes in unexpected places exists at the intersection of neuroscience, psychology, culture, and spirituality—a phenomenon that invites exploration through multiple perspectives.

While science offers valuable insights into the mechanisms of perception and pattern recognition, cultural and spiritual traditions provide frameworks for interpreting the potential significance of such experiences. The most meaningful approach likely involves integration of these different ways of knowing.

As religious studies scholar Dr. Jeffrey Kripal writes: “The most profound truths about human consciousness may be found not by choosing between materialist reductionism and uncritical supernaturalism, but by exploring the rich, complex territory where biology, psychology, culture, and spiritual experience converge” (Kripal, Authors of the Impossible, 2010).

Ultimately, each person’s experience of seeing eyes carries its own unique constellation of meaning. By approaching such experiences with both critical thinking and openness to mystery, we may discover insights that enrich our understanding of perception, consciousness, and the ongoing human quest for meaning.

Whether understood through the lens of neuroscience, psychology, cultural symbolism, or spiritual tradition, the eye remains one of humanity’s most powerful and persistent symbols—a reminder of our fundamental capacities for perception, witness, and insight that transcend cultural boundaries and historical eras.

References and Further Reading

Scientific Perspectives

Carhart-Harris, R. L., et al. (2014). “The entropic brain: A theory of conscious states informed by neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs.” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 20.
Davidson, R. J., & Goleman, D. (2017). Altered traits: Science reveals how meditation changes your mind, brain, and body. New York: Avery.
Lee, K., et al. (2017). Face Processing: Systems, Disorders and Cultural Differences. New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Schoonover, C. (2010). Portraits of the Mind: Visualizing the Brain from Antiquity to the 21st Century. New York: Abrams.

Psychological Approaches

Bulkeley, K. (2016). Big Dreams: The Science of Dreaming and the Origins of Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Jung, C. G. (1964). Man and His Symbols. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
Lewis, D. (2013). The Brain Sell: When Science Meets Shopping. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
Watkins, M. (2000). Invisible Guests: The Development of Imaginal Dialogues. Woodstock, CT: Spring Publications.

Cultural and Historical Studies

Eliade, M. (1964). Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Elkins, J. (2010). The Object Stares Back: On the Nature of Seeing. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Greenwood, S. (2009). The Anthropology of Magic. Oxford: Berg Publishers.
Richards, E. (2013). Sacred Symbols in Ancient Cultures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Spiritual and Philosophical Works

Ferrer, J. N. (2017). Participation and the Mystery: Transpersonal Essays in Psychology, Education, and Religion. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Kornfield, J. (2002). A Path with Heart: A Guide Through the Perils and Promises of Spiritual Life. New York: Bantam Books.
Kripal, J. J. (2010). Authors of the Impossible: The Paranormal and the Sacred. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
McEvilley, T. (2012). The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies. New York: Allworth Press.